Abrahams, 1989

Abrahams, S. W. (1989). Goal-setting and intrinsic motivation: The effects of choice and performance frame-of-reference. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (05), 2202. (UMI No. 8919137)

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), gives great emphasis to performers' perceptions of self-determination--the degree to which the performer him- or herself initiates and regulates his or her own behavior. Two experiments are reported that orthogonally manipulate goal choice and goal frame- of-reference and compare these conditions to several no- goal control groups. The experiments show that self-set goals enhance intrinsic motivation relative to assigned goals. They also show that norm-referenced goals offer no greater promise of gain in motivation while risking greater loss than do goals set relative to a performer's past performance.