Goldberg, 2001

Goldberg, E. (2001). The executive brain: Frontal lobes and the civilized mind.
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Several marginal groups in society exhibit the peculiar trait of relinquishing
their executive functions to external institution, where their options are
maximally constrained and the decision-making powers over them is exercised by
someone else. (p.146)

Stroop Test, To successfully complete the task, you must follow the internal plan,
the task, against your natural, entrenched tendency.

Steps of the purposeful behavior, executive function.
1. Initiate behavior.
2. Identify objective, formulate goal of action.
3. Forge a plan of action according to the goal.
4. The means by which the plan can be accomplished must be selected in a proper
temporal sequence.
5. The various steps of the plan must be executed in an appropriate order with a
smooth transistion from step to step.
6. Compare objective and the outcome of the action.

Sloane, 2003

Sloane, F. C. (2003). An assessment of Sorensen's model of school differentiation: A multilevel model of tracking in middle and high school mathematics (A. B. Sorensen). Dissertation Abstracts International, 64 (04), 1230. (UMI No. 3088788)

Sorensen wrote then “nearly all [tracking] studies relate a pattern of organizational differentiation to achievement or some other performance measure, without describing the mechanisms that would account for the predicted relationship. Despite the importance of Sorensen's theoretical framework in and to the study of tracking it still awaits rigorous multilevel testing. This dissertation serves to shed some light on critical conditions about the development and testing of multilevel statistical models in ways that help us to construct multilevel theory in an empirically testable manner.

Erwin, 2001

Erwin, E. M. H. (2001). Sinkers and swimmers: Student experiences with curriculum differentiation. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62 (01), 10. (UMI No. 3002592)

It was a descriptive case study whose major aims were to determine: (1) The characteristics of the students profiled in each of the curricular programs; (2) The role curriculum differentiation played in each student's experience. 15 high school freshmen from a variety of curricular programs at one Massachusetts high school were interviewed and videotaped. Student records were analyzed, and feedback was sought from students' grade 8 and grade 9 teachers through surveys and interviews. Seven years later, a follow-up study was conducted to determine if students' perceptions of their high school experience had changed.

The high achievers reported challenging teachers and rigorous curriculum. The achievers who pursued upper level courses had more positive experiences than those who pursued middle or lower level courses. Achievers who required or pursued special programs benefited from individualized attention but often suffered from a weak academic program. The under/non-achievers did not complete high school. This study supports the conclusion that student choice, teacher expectations, and school indifference had an impact on student experiences. The experiences of the largest group - the achievers - suggest that schools must pay more attention to the average student and work harder to motivate all students to maximize their potential.

Abrahams, 1989

Abrahams, S. W. (1989). Goal-setting and intrinsic motivation: The effects of choice and performance frame-of-reference. Dissertation Abstracts International, 50 (05), 2202. (UMI No. 8919137)

Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), gives great emphasis to performers' perceptions of self-determination--the degree to which the performer him- or herself initiates and regulates his or her own behavior. Two experiments are reported that orthogonally manipulate goal choice and goal frame- of-reference and compare these conditions to several no- goal control groups. The experiments show that self-set goals enhance intrinsic motivation relative to assigned goals. They also show that norm-referenced goals offer no greater promise of gain in motivation while risking greater loss than do goals set relative to a performer's past performance.

Miller & Gentile, 1998

Miller, B., & Gentile, B. F. (1998). Introductory course content and goals. Teaching Psychology, 25, 89-96.

Middleton, 1999

Middleton, J. A. (1995). Curricular influences on the motivational beliefs and practice of two middle school mathematics teachers: A follow-up study. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 30, 349-358.

Middleton, 1995

Middleton, J. A. (1995). A study of intrinsic motivation in the mathematics classroom: A personal constructs approach. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 26, 254-279.

Cole, 2005

Cole, M. A. (2005). Effects of goal-setting on memory performance in young and older adults: A functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study. Dissertation Abstracts International, 66 (09), 148. (UMI No. 3192371)

20 young adults (ages 18--28) and 20 older adults (ages 60--70) performed a list-learning task that was comprised of grocery items. Treatment group received performance achievement goals versus a no treatment control. The effect of goal-setting on encoding activity was primarily constrained to the frontal lobes. Regions that demonstrated significantly greater activity in the goal group than in the no-goal group included the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and Broca's area. Engagement of these regions likely reflects increased motivation and increased mnemonic processes, such as subvocal rehearsal.

Groves, et al., 2004

Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2004). Survey methodology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

A survey is a systematic method for gathering information from entities for the purposes of constructing quantitative descriptors of the attributes of the larger population of which the entities are members. Reasons for surveys are to gain understanding of social problems and in what people know, feel or think. Web surveys are specialized form of surveys in which computers are used in almost every step of survey design: data collection, coding text answers, checking raw data, and analysis.

Patton, 1981

Patton, C. J. C. (1981). Relationships between teacher variables and students' perceptions of classroom climate in junior high and high school classes. Dissertation Abstracts International, 42 (04), 1420. (UMI No. 8121517)

Examined relationships between teacher variables and student perceptions of classroom climate. 30 teachers, grades 7-12, in Northwest Ohio, two classes were randomly selected. Teacher attitudes toward students measured by Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. 14 teacher and classroom characteristics were assessed by questionnaire. Students (N=825) and teachers answered Classroom Environment Scale Form R. Univariate relationships found between climate perceptions and course length, subject area, and course electivity (p<.05). Students in different classes perceived different climates taught by the same teacher (p<.001).

Thompson, 1984

Thompson, D. L. (1984). The influences of guaranteed, semi-voluntary and voluntary student clienteles on the dominative/integrative teaching style of high school teachers. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (07), 1951. (UMI No. 8422878)

Examined relationship between teaching style and course electivity, elective, semi-elective and required. Also if classroom climate correlates with electivity. 23 teachers across 4 subject matter areas, who teach in two types of classes, 46 paired classrooms for repeated measures design. Flanders' I/D ratio was calculated from audio-tape data. Classroom climate measured by questionnaire. T-tests revealed no significant differences between course electivity and teaching style. ANOVA analysis, controlling for class size and grade level, revealed more positive climate in elective courses than either semi-elective or required. Students regarded semi-elective as required.

Poppe, 1984

Poppe, K. L. (1984). An analysis of teacher perceptions of inhibitors to effective classroom teaching in secondary schools. Dissertation Abstracts International, 45 (03), 803. (UMI No. 8414117)

Seven characteristics classified under 6 areas of origin were produced by crosstabulation of studies on effective teaching over last 50 years. Problems with Students, Preparation, Administration, Work Environment, Teaching Staff, and Parent. Teacher demographic factors SES, Teaching Required or Elective Classes, Subject Matter Taught, Years of Teaching Experience, Gender.

Wetherall, 1989

Wetherall, H. J. (1989). The context of science classrooms: Relationships among expectations, attitudes, student-teacher interactions and student gender. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51 (02), 473. (UMI No. 9017492)

Data collected from 5 required and 5 elective science classes in 4 public high schools. Looked for gender differences, the effect of time on student attitudes, using Subject Area Preference Survey, & classroom interactions, using SCI science classroom observation system. Students and teachers were interviewed about perceptions of the role of women in science, relevance of science in everyday lives, and science in their future, and problems of practice, respectively. ANOVA and chi-square analysis revealed that males control classroom discourse, and time influences student attitudes. No other significant differences were revealed in statistical analyses.

Essary, 1998

Essary, D. R. (1998). Critical incidents influencing students' selection of elective science. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60 (04), 1068. (UMI No. 9927573)

(N=436) Students attending 5 high schools in Northeast Texas. All enrolled in senior level government/economics course. 712 usable critical incidents recorded. 11 categories emerged: Mentored, Requirements, Personal Interest, Level of Difficulty, Time Restraints, Future Concerns, Grades, Teacher, Peer Influence, Challenge, Other Academic Experiences. Nonselectors were influenced by requirements, minimum number of science courses needed for graduation. Selectors chose based on curriculum requirements, future concerns, and mentors, as well as special programs that require extra science. Gender did not play a role in selection decisions.

Eccles & Wigfield, 2002

Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109-132.

Wentzel, 2000

Wentzel, K. R. (2000). What is it that I’m trying to achieve? Classroom goals
from a content perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 105–115.

National Science Board, 2004

National Science Board. (2004). Science and engineering indicators 2004. Two volumes.
Arlington, VA: National Science Foundation (volume 1, NSB 04-1; volume 2, NSB 04-1A).

Messick, 1995

Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons' responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50, 741-749.

Blumenfeld, 1992

Blumenfeld, P. C. (1992 ). Classroom learning and motivation: Clarifying and expanding goal theory. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 272-281.

Austin & Vancouver, 1996

Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 338-375.

Ames, 1992

Ames, C. (1992 ). Classrooms: Goals, structures and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.

Oser & Baeriswyl, 2001

Oser, F. K., & Baeriswyl, F. J. (2001). Choreographies of teaching: Bridging instruction to learning. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching, – 4th ed. Washington: American Educational Research Association.

Ames & Archer, 1988

Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students' learning strategies
and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260-267.

Wood, Lawrenz, Huffman & Schultz, 2006

Wood, N. B., Lawrenz, F., Huffman, D., & SchultzM. (2006). Viewing the school environment through Multiple lenses: In search of school-level variables tied to student achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 43, 237–254.

Surveyed 68 middle school principals, 165 eighth grade science teachers, and 2465 eighth grade science students from 74 schools in three states about their perceptions of the school environment. No theoretical, empirical and experiential constructs were predictors of varied student science achievement data.

Clark & Peterson, 1986

Clark, C. M. & Peterson, P. L. (1986). Teachers' thought processes. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Teaching, 3^rd Ed, 255-296. New York: Macmillan.

Urdan & Maehr, 1995

Urdan, T. C. & Maehr, M. L. (1995). Beyond a two-goal theory of motivation and achievement: A case for social goals. Review of Educational Research, 65, 213-243.

Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle, 1993

Pintrich, P. R., Marx, R. W., & Boyle, R. A. (1993). Beyond cold conceptual change: The role of motivational beliefs and classroom contextual factors in the process of conceptual change. Review of Educational Research, 62, 167-199.

Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2001

Linnenbrink, E. A., & Pintrich, P. R. (2001). Multiple goals, multiple contexts: The dynamic interplay between personal goals and contextual goal stresses. In S. Volet & S. Jarvela (Eds.), Motivation in learning contexts: Theoretical advanced and methodological implications (pp. 251-269). New York: Pergamon.

Pugh & Bergin, 2005

Pugh, K. J., & Bergin, D. A. (2005). The effect of schooling on students' out-of-school experience. Educational Researcher, 39(9), 15-23.

Mitchell, Thompson, & George-Falvy, 2000

Mitchell, T. R., Thompson, K. R., & George-Falvy, J. (2000). Goal setting: Theory and practice. In C. L. Cooper & E. A. Locke (Eds.), Industrial and organizational psychology: Linking theory with practice, (pp. 216-249). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

1. Increases in the difficulty of assigned goals leads to increases in performance (assuming goal acceptance).

2. Specific, difficult assigned goals result in higher performance than do best or no assigned goals.

DuBrin, 2004

DuBrin, A. J. (2004). Applying psychology: Industrial and organizational effectiveness, 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Raven, 1992

Raven, J. C. (1992). A model of competence, motivation, and behavior, and a paradigm for assessment. In H. Berlak, F. M. Newman, E. Adams, D. A. Archbald, T. Burgess, J. C. Raven, & T. A. Romberg (Eds.), Toward a New Science of Educational Testing and Assessment, 85-116. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Raven (1992) breaks down competence into three components: motivation, effective performance, and context.

Brophy, 2005

Brophy, J. (2005). Goal theorists should move on from performance goals. Educational Psychologist, 40, 167-176.

Turner & Meyer, 2000

Turner, J. C., & Meyer, D. K. (2000). Studying and understanding the instructional contexts of classrooms: Using our past to forge our future. Educational Psychologist, 35, 69–85.

Doyle, 1979

Doyle, W. (1979). The tasks of teaching and learning in classrooms. ERIC Document, ED185069.

Pushkin, 2002

Pushkin, D. (2002). Atheoretical nature of the national science education standards: There's more theory than we think – a response to Thomas Shiland. Science Education, 86, 161-166.

Shiland, 2002

Shiland, T. W. (2002). Reply to Pushkin. Science Education, 86, 167-170.

Shiland, 1998

Shiland, T. W. (1998). The atheoretical nature of the national science education standards. Science Education, 82, 615-617.

Ford, 1992

Ford, M. E. (1992). Motivating humans: Goals, emotions, and personal agency beliefs. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Friedrichsen & Dana, 2005

Friedrichsen, P. M., & Dana, T. M. (2005). Substantive-level theory of highly regarded secondary biology teachers' science teaching orientation. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42, 218-244.

Locke & Latham, 2002

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705-717.

Locke & Latham, 1990

Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

National Research Council, 1996

National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington DC: National Academy Press.

Ames, 1992

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.

HTML Email

Brenda's been nagging me (I mean that in an endearing way) about email newsletters for awhile now. I admit I've been curious as to how to create them. I finally committed some time yesterday to figuring out how they are made. Started by reading some howtos on the web via Google. They are helpful but skip key learning details. My first experiment was an attached html page. That worked okay. But I knew that Brenda would not want to handcode HTML to create a newsletter. This works, but it isn't a usable solution. Then I tried pasting the attached HTML into an email with HTML only set in the menu bar. This doesn't work. All you see is what you sent exactly, that is the html code. Here's the solution: Create the newsletter with headers and footers directly in the email. I mean, you treat the email message panel as a WYSIWYG web editor. Insert tables, images, paragraphs like a web page. This avoids a lot of problems, like image paths that are a real headache.

Pedometer Experiment Over

T 1.79
W 0.88
R 0.59
F 3.76
S 1.03
S 1.32
M 5.89 (2) 2.7.06
On tuesday I lost the pedometer. Hanging it on my jeans, it was always
loose.

Keys & Kennedy, 1999

Keys, C. W. & Kennedy, V. (1999). Understanding inquiry science teaching in context: A case study of an elementary teacher. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 10, 315-333.

Blumenfeld, Puro & Mergendoller, 1992

Blumenfeld, P. C., Puro, P. & Mergendoller, J. R. (1992). Translating motivation into thoughtfulness. In H. H. Marshall (Ed.), Redefining student learning: Roots of educational change, (pp. 207-239). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Lederman, 2003

Lederman, N. G. (2003). Scientific inquiry and nature of science as a meaningful context for learning in science. In S. P. Marshall, J. A. Scheppler, & M. J. Palmisano (Eds.), Science literacy for the twenty-first century (pp. XX-XX). Amherst, NY : Prometheus Books.

Inquiry science, inquiry learning, inquiry teaching.

Bluetooth File Transfer

File Transfer: I successfully learned how to send a file from a PC to a PocketPC via Bluetooth connection. After establishing all connections (which I hope I blogged about before), all I did was right click on the file I wanted to send. Then selected Bluetooth device. Make sure that Passkey and Encryption settings are matched up on both devices. It was a easy as that.

Sorensen, 1970

Sorensen, A. B. (1970). Organizational differentiation of students and educational opportunity. Sociology of Education, 43, 355-376.

Organizational differentiation is the division of a school's student body into subgroups of a permanent character. Structural characteristics of the school as determinants of learning. Direct and indirect effects. Dimensions: 1) Assignment of students to groups for instructional purposes to reduce variation either relative to learning capacity (vertical or tracks) or between class variation relative to transmitted knowledge (horizontal); 2) Inclusiveness, the number of opportunities assumed to be available at different educational levels, 3) Electivity, the degree to which students' own decisions are allowed to be a determining factor in the assignment to groups, 4) Selectivity, the amount of homogeneity that educational authorities intend to produce by the assignment procedure, 5) Scope, the extent a given group of students will be members of the same classroom over time.

"The pattern of organizational differentiation also may influence the teachers to whom a student gets exposed and the behavior of these teachers." Teaching a high selectivity classrooms full of students with the same non-cognitive characteristics: career goals in science, positive attitudes, and college goals, would set the context for setting high goals.

Cavallo & Laubach, 2001

Cavallo, A. M. L., & Laubach, T. A. (2001). Students' science perceptions and enrollment decisions in differing learning cycle classrooms. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 38, 1029-1062.

10th grade students were more likely to enroll in an elective chemistry course when in high inquiry versus low inquiry classrooms. Students who plan to enroll in elective class have more positive attitudes than those not planning to enroll. This effect was more pronounced in high inquiry classrooms. Low inquiry classrooms showed relatively no difference in attitude between enroll and non-enroll students. Students reasons for enrolling included future careers, learning more about science, and need for college. Students reasons for not enrolling included no future career in science, did not need science credits, and not interested in science.

Aleamoni, 1999

Aleamoni, L. M. (1999). Student rating myths versus research facts from 1924 to 1998. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 13, 153-166.

Myth 9: Whether students take the course as a requirement or as an elective affects their ratings.
Several investigators have found that students who are required to take a course tend to rate it lower than student who elect to take it (Cohen & Humphreys, 1960; Divoky & Rathermel, 1988; Gillmore & Brandenburh, 1974; Pohlmann, 1975). Instructors of elective courses were rated significantly higher than instructors of required courses (Gage, 1961; Lovell & Haner, 1955; Petchers & Chow, 1988; Scherr & Scherr, 1990). However, studies have found no significant differences between student rating (Heilman & Armentrout, 1936; Hildebrand, Wilson & Dienst, 1971).

Midgley, et al., 2000

Midgley, C., Maehr, M. L., Hruda, L. Z., Anderman, E., Anderman, L., Freeman, K. E., Gheen, M., Kaplan, A., Kumar, R., Middleton, M. J., Nelson, J., Roeser, R., & Urdan, T. (2000). Manual for the patterns of adaptive learning scales. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan.

In 2x2 matrix of develop/demonstrate competence and perceptions/strategy they attempted to measure school goal structures. Teachers agreed (M=4.07) with school goal structures of developing competence over demonstrating competence (M=3.02). Although I felt the item wording could be biased to show that result. Such language reflects the lingo of schools today, It's not clear to me whether they really believe this. Teachers somewhat agreed (M=3.44) with strategy use for developing competence, but somewhat disagreed (M=2.21) with demonstrating competence. Without summative and comparative feedback can leave some students without a clear sense of skill assessment. Teachers somewhat agreed (M=3.36) with statements about teacher efficacy.

Oakes, Gamoran & Page, 1992

Oakes, J., Gamoran, A., & Page, R. N. (1992). Curriculum differentiation: Opportunities, outcomes, and meanings. In P. W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum, pp. 570-608. New York: Macmillan.

Provisions for common, traditional, and required coursework compete with provisions for differentiated, innovative and elective coursework. Curriculum differentiation makes different knowledge available to different groups of students. (Different goals = different knowledge?) Secondary is differentiated allow considerable student choice with elective courses about evenly balanced in number with high school graduation requirements. Older adolescents have more choice and more vaired subject matter than do junior high students. Half of coursework becomes elective, in explicit recognition of differences in inidividual students' abilities, interests, and aspirations. Curriculum is a resource distributed by administrators and teachers to students within schools. It is not a random distribution.

Teachers often prefer instructing high-ability students (Ball, 1981; Hargreaves, 1967; Lacey, 1970; Metz, 1978). Occasionally teachers prefer not to teach high tracks, finding it threatening to work with students who challenge their authority (Metz, 1978) or who are of higher social status (Lortie, 1975). Class assignment is sometimes used as a reward for more successful teachers (Becker, 1953; Hargreaves, 1967; McPartland & Crain, 1987). In Oakes (1990b), secondary science and math teachers' backgrounds and qualifications vary with class level assignment. These differences remain when student population characteristics were controlled for.

Tobin, 1987

Tobin, K. (1987). Forces which shape the implemented curriculum in high
school science and mathematics. Teaching and Teacher Education, 3,
287-298.

In meta-analysis of 5 qualitative studies from 1984 to 1986, all 33
teachers emphasized the importance of completing the academic work in
higher ability classes. They needed to know the content in grade 10 in
order to succeed in grade 11 and 12. Less pressure to finish the course
with low-abilty grade 10 students because they were unlikely to remain
in school in 11th. Bare-bones course based on textbook. No enjoyment. No
current events. Most cases finished as soon as possible. Then busy work.
Crossword puzzles and films for 80 min each. Planning involved covering
content, not understanding.

Wood, 1994

Wood, S. (1994). Collaborating to change the psychological culture of the school: Effects on teachers of a goal theory approach. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1994). Dissertation Abstracts International, 56, 57.

In 1989-90, a University of Michigan team replicated the Ames program with 29 teachers in 5 local schools. They found that school-level policies worked in opposition to task-focused strategies that teachers were trying to implement in their classrooms. Policies like honor roll, reading program rewards, year to year placement from task to ability oriented classrooms were all perceived by teachers as negatively influencing their work in implementing goal change. Teachers' good intentions to make their individual classrooms as task-oriented as possible are sometimes undermined by the existence of schoolwide policies that stress ability goals.

Suggests that teachers, like students are subject to the goal stresses in their environment and in turn put similar stresses on their subjects. "If we are to create a task-focused environment for students, we've got to work in one."

Issues relating to the schedule, the needs of gifted and talented students, and the availability of electives like band took precedence, and not only inhibited change but demoralized the members of the [leadership] team. It seems to me they did not follow their own advice, grouping of gifted kids, departmentalized approach to curriculum, scheduling by groups of ability all fall into the kinds of things that should be changed. But they describe these things as unchangeable, constraints.

Talbert, 1990

Talbert, J. E. (April, 1990). Teacher tracking: Exacerbating inequalities in the high school. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in Boston, MA.

This paper addresses the teachers' place in stratified classes. Are teachers differentiated according to the teachers they teach?

Test: Blog from hp6515

connecting through bluetooth and activesync.