Spade, Columba & Vanfossen, 1997

Spade, J. Z., Columba, L., & Vanfossen, B. E. (1997). Tracking in mathematics and science: Courses and course-selection procedures. Sociology of Education, 70, 108-127

Looking at 6 high schools matched across SES and average versus improved in scores. Found richer or excelling schools offered more higher level courses versus their matched counterparts. Advanced levels courses developed for "above average in ability, interest, and motivation" not getting what they need at the testing level. One department head, while carrying high standards, replied that no students were prepared for physics (presumably at 11th). Teachers, when involved, either assigned students to next course, or discussed with students. Though not usually involved.

Recommendations: More demanding courses, recruiting students into elective 11th grade courses. Offering choice at 9th grade, when it's usually required.